Read this classic 11th
century version of the ontological argument by Saint Anselm. Also read Monadology up to section 52 (with Rescher’s additions) and
Leibniz’s letter to Countess Elizabeth (?), pp. 235–240 in Ariew-Garber.
St. Anselm of
Chapter 2: That God
Really Exists
Therefore, Lord, you who give
knowledge of the faith, give me as much knowledge as you know to be fitting for
me, because you are as we believe and that which we
believe. And indeed we believe you are something
greater than which cannot be thought. Or is there no
such kind of thing, for "the fool said in his heart, 'there is no
God'" (Ps. 13:1, 52:1)? But certainly that same
fool, having heard what I just said, "something greater than which cannot
be thought," understands what he heard, and what he understands is in his
thought, even if he does not think it exists. For it is one thing for something
to exist in a person's thought and quite another for the person to think that
thing exists. For when a painter thinks ahead to what he will paint, he has
that picture in his thought, but he does not yet think it exists, because he
has not done it yet. Once he has painted it he has it in his thought and thinks
it exists because he has done it. Thus even the fool is compelled to grant that
something greater than which cannot be thought exists in thought, because he
understands what he hears, and whatever is understood exists in thought. And
certainly that greater than which cannot be understood cannot exist only in
thought, for if it exists only in thought it could also be thought of as
existing in reality as well, which is greater. If, therefore, that than which greater
cannot be thought exists in thought alone, then that than which greater cannot
be thought turns out to be that than which something greater actually can be
thought, but that is obviously impossible. Therefore something than which
greater cannot be thought undoubtedly exists both in thought and in reality.
Chapter 3: That God
Cannot be Thought Not to Exist
In fact, it so undoubtedly
exists that it cannot be thought of as not existing.
For one can think there exists something that cannot be thought of as not
existing, and that would be greater than something which
can be thought of as not existing. For if that greater than which cannot be
thought can be thought of as not existing, then that greater than which cannot
be thought is not that greater than which cannot be thought, which does not
make sense. Thus that than which nothing can be thought so undoubtedly exists
that it cannot even be thought of as not existing.
And you, Lord God, are this being. You exist so
undoubtedly, my Lord God, that you cannot even be
thought of as not existing. And deservedly, for if
some mind could think of something greater than you, that creature would rise
above the creator and could pass judgment on the creator, which is absurd. And indeed whatever exists except you alone can be thought
of as not existing. You alone of all things most truly exists and thus enjoy
existence to the fullest degree of all things, because nothing else exists so
undoubtedly, and thus everything else enjoys being in a lesser degree. Why therefore
did the fool say in his heart "there is no God," since it is so
evident to any rational mind that you above all things exist?
Why indeed, except precisely because he is stupid and foolish?
Chapter 4: How the Fool
Managed to Say in His Heart That Which Cannot be
Thought
How in the world could he
have said in his heart what he could not think? Or how
indeed could he not have thought what he said in his heart, since saying it in
his heart is the same as thinking it? But if he really thought it because he said
it in his heart, and did not say it in his heart because he could not possibly
have thought it - and that seems to be precisely what happened - then there
must be more than one way in which something can be said in one's heart or
thought. For a thing is thought in one way when the words signifying it are
thought, and it is thought in quite another way when the thing signified is
understood. God can be thought not to exist in the
first way but not in the second. For no one who understands what God is can
think that he does not exist. Even though he may say those words in his heart he will give them some other meaning or no meaning at
all. For God is that greater than which cannot be thought. Whoever understands
this also understands that God exists in such a way that one cannot even think
of him as not existing.
Thank you, my good God, thank you, because what I
believed earlier through your gift I now understand through your illumination
in such a way that I would be unable not to understand it even if I did not
want to believe you existed.